The Role Of The Entrepreneur

The Role Of The Entrepreneur Previous studies have highlighted the changes by OECD countries from large companies consisting of mass production to smaller companies focusing on knowledge, initiative and flexibility. According to Karlsson et al, this change appears to have taken place from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s. (Karlsson et al., 2004; Acs, 1996 and 1999; Acs and Audretsch, 2001; Audretsch and Thurik, 1997 and 2001; Audretsch et al, 2002) The large managed economies invested in production, distribution and management. (Chandler, 1990) A large distributional network meant the products could reach large market. The smaller entrepreneurial economies focus on knowledge and flexibility as part of production. (Karlsson et al., 2004) Karlsson et al highlights the factors that caused the change from a managed economy to an entrepreneurial economy such as increased global competition, changes in demand and demographics, intensified uncertainty and new technologies. (Karlsson et al., 2004) Definition of Entrepreneurship The name Entrepreneur can be used very vaguely as it can cover a number of different roles. Thurik and Wennekers identified up to thirteen roles that the entrepreneur can be responsible for: The person who assumes the risk associated with uncertainty The supplier of financial capital An innovator A decision maker An industrial leader A manager An organiser and coordinator of economic resources The owner of an enterprise An employer of factors of production A contractor An arbitrageur An allocator of resources among alternative uses The person who realises a start-up of a new business (Thurik Wennekers, 1999) After much studying regarding the history of entrepreneurship and the economy, Hà ©bert and Link came up with the following definition for the entrepreneur: The entrepreneur is someone who specialises in taking responsibility for and making judgemental decisions that affect the location, form, and the use of goods, resources, or institutions. Thurik and Wennekers then came up with the following definition of entrepreneurship, with the help of Hà ©bert and Link (1989), Bull and Willard (1993) and Lumpkin and Dess (1996): Entrepreneurship is the manifest ability and willingness of individuals, on their own, in teams, within and outside existing organisations, to: perceive and create new economic opportunities (new products, new production methods, new organisational schemes and new product market combinations) and to introduce their ideas in the market, in the face of uncertainty and other obstacles, by making decisions on location, form and the use of resources and institutions. (Thurik and Wennekers, 1999) The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) defines entrepreneurship as: Any attempt at new business or venture creation, such as self employment, a new business organisation, or the expansion of an existing business organisation by an individual, teams of individuals, or established businesses. (GEM, 2002) Invest NI simply defines entrepreneurship as: Someone who pursues business opportunities beyond known resources to create wealth. (Invest NI) History of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth Theories Thurik and Wennekers split the historical entrepreneurial theories into three traditions: German tradition of von Thà ¼nen, Schumpter and Baumol Entrepreneur is the creator of instability and creative destruction. (Neo-)classical tradition of Marshall, Knight and Schultz Helps markets reach an equilibrium by carrying out entrepreneurial activities. Austrian tradition of Menger, von Mises and Kirzner The ability of the entrepreneur to realise opportunities for profit. Helps satisfy needs or improve market inefficiencies and deficiencies. Thurik and Wennekers attribute economic growth through entrepreneurship to three main entrepreneurial activities, enhanced competition, innovations and employment growth through firm start-ups. The following table, created by Thurik and Wennekers, shows the various schools of growth theory with the role of entrepreneurship: Growth Theories Neo-Classical Growth Theories Schumpeter/ Baumol Theory Karlsson et al highlights that the German traditions of Schumpeter in 1934 and Baumol in 1968, shows the entrepreneur as an innovator and inspirer, the implementer of creative destruction, creating instability, disequilibria and economic development. (Karlsson et al., 2004) A model by Aghion and Howitt tries to explain how creative destruction works. The Research and Development sector invents new production techniques, putting other techniques beyond use. As this new technique is used, the innovators are rewarded until a new technique superseeds his invention. (Aghion and Howitt, 1992; Thurik and Wennekers, 1999) Neo-Classical Theory While there have been a number of neoclassical growth models created over the years, the main one to have an impact has been that of Robert Solow in 1956. One of his main conclusions was that the accumulation of capital cannot account for historic growth per capita, nor the differences in international per capita output. Karlsson et al explains that the model is built where output is a function of capital and effective labour, where effective labour includes the knowledge and effectiveness of the labour force. Output therefore increases if either capital or effective labour increase, and with given levels of capital and labour, the only way growth can occur is through the expansion of knowledge, being the advancement of technology. The economy will eventually reach equilibrium, where output, capital and effective labour will all grow at a constant rate. This rate of growth is determined by the advances in technology. With this theory by Solow, the entrepreneur does not exist. Austrian Theory The Austrian Theory is where the entrepreneur spots an area of disequilibrium and attempts to profit from this situation by improving on the inefficiencies and deficiencies in the market. (Kirzner, 1973) Holcombe (1998) and Minniti (1999) agree that in order for opportunities to become available, they have to have been created by other entrepreneurs. Quite simply put by Karlsson et al, entrepreneurship generates more entrepreneurship. (Karlsson, 2004; Holcombe, 1998; Minniti, 1999) Endogenous Growth Theories (New Growth Theory) The Endogenous Growth Theory or New Growth Theory was developed in the 1980s as a response to the basic Neoclassical Theory of Growth. Many believe that the problem with the Neoclassical theories is that as growth is determined through the levels of technological changes, there is very little relating to the factors that affect technological progress. Romer (1986, 1990) and Lucas (1988) were responsible for the early development of this concept. (Hoque) It appears that generally within the endogenous models such as Romer (1986, 1990) and Lucas(1988), the entrepreneur does not hold a central role, however, Grossman and Helpman (1991) suggest that all Research and Development and investment decisions are made by forward-looking profit maximising entrepreneurs. (Karlsson et al, 2004; Grossman and Helpman, 1991) Hoque goes on to suggest that output and growth are dependent on the internal variable saving rate, which is converted into human capital investment used for innovating new ideas and methods. This variable saving rate allows for technological progress, resulting in the long-term growth of the economy. The endogenous growth theory focuses on a number of factors, including education, knowledge, research, training and experience. These factors help for growth and lead to innovation. Hoque mentions two types of innovation: Horizontal Innovation The Research Sector develops a variety of goods leading to a spillover effect on the economy. These goods can be patented and sold to the immediate goods sector who then have a monopoly power on each design and can therefore earn a monopoly return. Vertical Innovation This is where improvements are made to existing products, leading to a temporary increase in productivity and a sustainable increase in output growth. East Asian Miracle: 1965 1990 Thurik and Wennekers (1999) refers to the economic growth of East Asian countries in the past decade. These eight countries are referred to as the High-Performing Asian Economies (HPAEs) and include the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. During the period of 1965 to 1990, they experienced an average GNP growth rate per capita of 5.5%. This growth can be taken from both exports of goods, as well as domestic demand. A number of public policies led to growing physical and human capital, the allocation of resources to productive investment and the gathering and perfecting of technology. Thurik and Wennekers, however, state that the innovation, private investment and marketing does not necessarily come from entrepreneurial activity and there is no obvious proof of an increase in entrepreneurship. Phelps commented on the paper by Mankiw (1995), claiming that with such an increase in human capital, entrepreneurship must be the reason, helped by the governments. Porter (1990) has also supported this viewed when writing about Emerging Korea in which he states two factors, being the willingness to take risks and the intensity of competition. Entrepreneurship and the Competitive Advantage of Nations An analysis by Porter (1990) was conducted in order to highlight the factors or conditions and determine the competitive strength of nations. Porters model was made up of four sets of factors in what was called the diamond model. Thurik and Wennekers describe these determinants below: Factor Conditions Porter distinguishes basic factors (e.g. natural resources and cheap, unskilled labour) from advanced factors (highly skilled personnel, modern networks infrastructure); Demand Conditions These have three main elements: the nature of buyer needs (e.g. sophisticated instead of basic), the size and the pattern of growth and the existence of mechanisms by which a nations domestic preferences are transmitted to foreign markets; Related and Supporting Industries The presence of internationally competitive supplier and related industries stimulates rivalry and partial cooperation; The Structure and Culture of Domestic Rivalry This encompasses a wide scope such as opportunities provided to possible new entrants, the nature of competition between incumbent firms, dominant business strategies and management practices. (Thurik and Wennekers) This diamond model is summed up by Porter (1990) as, Invention and entrepreneurship are at the heart of national advantage. With this model, Porter suggests that innovation comes directly from entrepreneurship. As well as this, he claims that international competitiveness is a vital link between entrepreneurship (innovation) and economic growth, with domestic rivalry being important in leading to international competitiveness. He also mentions that entrepreneurship is not a trait associated with smaller firms. (Thurik and Wennekers, 1999) Evolutionary Economics The concept of this theory is that each individual has a set of routines, which gradually evolve. These routines are tested in the market environment and due to natural selection, the most suitable one survives. (Karlsson et al., 2004) In this model, each individual has entrepreneurial spirit, human capital and venture capital. (Grebel et al., 2001) Eliasson (1994) mentions that in order for a firm to survive, competence is the most important factor and that accumulation of competence is the determinant of success. This was also backed up by a study conducted by Eliasson and Braunerhjelm (1998), claiming that economic growth stems from human-embodied tacit competencies. (Karlsson et al., 2004) Linking Entrepreneurial Activities to Economic Growth Competition Within the U.S., Acs (1996) suggests that employment growth is due to the increased competition. Geroski (1994) agrees that competition is important by stating that competition plays a significant role in stimulating productivity, with both new firms and new ideas provoking movements to, and outwards movements of, the production frontier which, the data suggest would not have occurred in their absence. Gort and Sung (1999) conclude that an increase in competition will lead to an increase in efficiency. This competition will affect efficiency in four ways: Greater incentive to stimulate demand Higher quality of capital inputs Lower monitoring costs Greater efficiency of firm-specific organisational capital and rivalry leading to innovation Dennis (1995) mentions how competition stimulates some people, but not everyone. These people will try to find a better and more profitable way of doing things in order to maintain or improve their position in the market. These people have chosen innovation rather than working harder. (Dennis, 1995; However, he also mentions how there are policy-imposed limits on competition which vary from country to country, giving the example that the U.S Postal Service who are owned by the government, are the only company allowed to deliver first class mail. This can allow a monopoly to form over a certain market and prevent competition occurring. Innovation The innovative activity of small firms has a different level of importance depending on the type of sector a firm is involved in. (Acs and Audretsch, 2001) Baldwin and Johnson (1999) mention a number of small firms in which innovation is important including electronics, instruments, medical equipment, steel and biotechnology. Acs (1996) goes further than this by calculating the number of innovations per 1000 employees in different industry sectors. When this measure was carried out in 1982 in the U.S., it was found that firms with less than 500 employees produced more innovations in fields such as electronic computing equipment, process control instruments, electronic components, engineering and scientific instruments and plastic products. (Karlsson et al., 2004) In studies conducted by Acs et al (1994), as well as Audretsch and Vivarelli (1996), it was found that innovations by small firms was greater if the firms were close to Universities. This shows the effect of education on innovation. Other studies have found that small firms are more likely to innovate in unexplored areas of technology, with the larger companies focusing on more established areas. (Acs, 1999) Rothwell and Zegveld found that all outputs from the UK which they studied were radical breakthroughs, with only 27% of U.S. firms producing these radical breakthroughs, 30% as major technological shifts and 37% as improvement type innovations. (Rothwell and Zegveld, 1982; Karlsson, 2004) Ernst and Young make a number of observations with regards innovation and entrepreneurship: Theres no time like a downturn to take advantage of entrepreneurial thinking A recent Ernst and Young survey found that the majority of entrepreneurs saw the economic slowdown as the perfect time to explore new opportunities. More than half of the companies on the 2009 Fortune 500 list were founded during a recession or bear market. The market leaders of today are not necessary the market leaders of tomorrow Entrepreneurial enterprises grow quickly, replacing the market share of many dominant corporations. Innovation can, and often must be, disruptive Disruptive innovation is often the turning point for business in an industry undergoing significant change. (Christensen, 1997) Applegate states, Disruptions in the business environment cause economic shifts that destabilise industries, companies and even countries. They allow new entrants or forward thinking established players to introduce innovations in products, markets, or processes that transform the way companies do business and consumers behave. (Applegate, 2007) She goes on to mention a number of factors which companies must consider when faced with disruptive business conditions: Technology Important emerging technologies and how they are being used by others to help create an advantage. Business Models New business models need to be created or adapted to help improve how business is done. Industry Dynamics Fragmented industries where significant value can be delivered through consolidation. Globalisation Adapt to how companies in another part of the world perform. Regulatory, macroeconomic, political and societal factors Changes in regulations, political power and society that disrupt major companies, providing opportunities for new companies. (Applegate, 2007) Never too big to be an entrepreneur Large firms are often weighed down by institutional structures that may see unconventional ideas or strategies as impractical or threatening. However, they can still innovate successfully by building and sustaining innovation-oriented cultures. Large companies have found that in addition to internal research, they can seek innovation through partnerships, joint ventures, licensing and investing in up and coming companies. Government policies that encourage entrepreneurship are most likely to result in increased innovation A 2009 report from the Ernst and Young Conference Board states, Policies that protect firms or industries can result in reduced incentives for entrepreneurs to invest in innovative ideas and for large firms to invest in Research and Development because they no longer face the competitive pressure to constantly improve their product in order to improve (or maintain) their market share. Ernst and Young highlight that the governments which are viewed as most effective when they stay out of the business sectors way, play an important role in helping the engines of growth which are entrepreneurs. They also highlight some ways in which the government can help: Strengthen and invest in education systems Encourage businesses to connect with global, cross-border markets Cultivate confidence in capital markets Simplify procedures and requirements Champion robust Research and Development programs Allow for failure Encourage sound public/private partnerships Make the tax framework friendly to innovation (Ernst and Young, 2009) Industrial Structure, Start-ups and Job Creation When it comes to the differences between large and small firms, Carree and Thurik (1998), as well as Vosloo (1994) highlight a number of advantages in smaller firms. Mentioned is the fact that a greater number of smaller firms dispersed geographically allow for customers to cut travelling distances. As well as this, variety can only be created by small firms and the entrepreneur running the firm is more likely to be energetic and motivational. Vosloo highlights advantages of small firms in developing economies, such as less capital per worker on average, higher likelihood of innovation per employee, greater flexibility, higher growth and job creation rates, as well as being able to serve a more niche market. Studies by both Audretsch et al (2002), as well as Carree and Thurik (1998), have found that on average, the employment share of large firms had a negative effect on growth of output and that smaller firms have helped economic growth. With regards to Germany, Wengenroth (1999) concluded that Small business was the catalyst of industrial growth in providing the background of skills and services which alone made possible the mass consumption of industrial product. Davis et al (1996) mentions that the entrepreneurship in start-ups makes a smaller contribution to job growth than expansion of existing firms in the U.S. This is also backed by a study conducted by Bednarzik (2000). It has to be noted however, that smaller firms have a higher gross job creation, with larger firms providing more in terms of net job creation. Carree and Klomp (1996) dispute this claim from Davis et al, arguing that relative to employment share, small firms created more net jobs relative to employment share. (Karlsson, 2004) What has regularly been found is that small firms can have a volatile job situation, with plenty of job growth, but also a lot of job destruction. Investec, a UK asset management group, have predicted a large number of job losses within the public sector with the hope that entrepreneurship will offset this. Their research also found that two thirds of Britains entrepreneurs expect to increase employment, with only 8% expecting job losses. (Investec, 2010) Ed Cottrell, from Investec Private Bank highlighted what is required by the new Coalition Government in the UK. With a new government formed, severe spending cuts will have to be enforced to help tackle the countrys debts, and this could lead to job losses, especially in the public sector. We need to make sure that entrepreneurs, which are the lifeblood of our economy, are properly incentivised to grow their operations and therefore hire more people. Philip Shaw, the chief economist at Investec Bank added, Entrepreneurs look for an environment that provides them with opportunity, reward and a flexible environment to operate in. They also look for stability and support, be that from the banks or the government, and it is in the best interest of the economy to provide this to them. (Investec, 2010) Entrepreneurship and Large Firms Entrepreneurial activity is not limited to small firms. Corporate entrepreneurship occurs in large organisations with Drucker (1985) claiming that they will not survive unless they acquire entrepreneurial competence. Stopford and Baden-Fuller (1994) explain that there are three types of corporate entrepreneurship: Creation of new businesses within an organisation often referred to as intrapreneurship. Transformation or strategic renewal of existing organisations. Carrying out an innovation that essentially alters the industry. (Stopford and Baden-Fuller, 1994) He also highlights five attributes common with corporate entrepreneurship: Proactiveness Aspirations beyond current ability Team orientation Capability to resolve dilemmas Learning capacity Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) refer to corporations acting entrepreneurially, pursuing opportunity, whether through specific company structures or not, constitutes the core of entrepreneurship, both individual and corporate. They highlight how dependant management are on the individuals within a firm to create this corporate entrepreneurship. Bridge et al (1998) highlight the difference between inventors and intrapreneurship. Inventors are usually individuals, but intrapreneurship is frequently carried out by groups or teams. Thurik and Wennekers (1999) concludes by stating that corporate entrepreneurship plays an essential role in the process of strategic renewal of large and incumbent firms. In the short-term, corporate entrepreneurship can occur at the same time as downsizing and the loss of jobs, however, in the long-term, it enhances competitiveness and leads to sales growth. Thurik and Wennekers (1999) also mention how studies have shown that there seems to be a strong evidence to support a positive impact of corporate entrepreneurship on economic growth. They created a table to show the differences between individual and corporate entrepreneurship: Figure 2 Individual and Corporate Entrepreneurship According to Cole and Neumayer (2003), neoclassical growth theory predicts that poor economies grow faster than rich economies. This is taken from the theory that if all economies are assumed to have the same steady state, then the only difference between countries is the initial level of capital and poor economies will grow faster as they are further away from their steady state. Measuring Entrepreneurship GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor is a global measure of entrepreneurial activity to assist in entrepreneurship policy research. The project has now been running for 12 years and covers over 34 countries worldwide. GEM aims to fulfil a number of research questions similar to this dissertation: How much entrepreneurial activity is taking place in each county? Why do levels of entrepreneurial activity differ between countries/regions? What are the links between entrepreneurial activity and economic growth and productivity? Surveys conducted by GEM are used to collect information on different types of businesses at a range of entrepreneurial activity. These three business types are: Start-ups Young businesses Establishes businesses Research from GEM continues to associate a positive correlation between start-up activity and economic development, highlighting key indicators of entrepreneurial capacity and tendencies. A Background to Northern Ireland Northern Ireland is one of four countries located in the United Kingdom. With a population of 1.7 million people as of 2004, it is the smallest of these countries. (UK Statistics Authority, 2004) Traditionally, Northern Ireland has been known for having an industrial economy, for example, in the shipbuilding and textiles businesses. This has since been replaced by the services industry. For example, Harland and Wolff, a shipbuilder located in Northern Ireland, once employed around 35,000 people. Nowadays, there are only around 500 employees focused on the repairing of oil platforms and the assembly of wind turbines. Northern Ireland has for a long time suffered from a troubled past, with the most recent referred to as The Troubles. This has been dated from the late 1960s to the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. (Aughey, 2005) During this time, threats of bombings, the high cost of security and the lack of a stable market, meant large companies were reluctant to invest. This also drove away many of the existing businesses. (Rowthorn Wayne, 1988) Confidence gradually built up within Northern Ireland since the mid 1990s, when many paramilitary groups initiated cease fires and political parties began to work together. However, the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 proved to the rest of the world that the majority of Northern Ireland were willing to move on from the troubled past. Twelve years on and unemployment has fallen sharply, as well as many people immigrating to Northern Ireland from other EU countries. (BBC, 2008) The current rate of unemployment stands at 6.8%, amongst one of the lowest of the regions in the United Kingdom, compared with a peak in 1986 of 17.2%. (DETINI, 2010) (BBC, 2001) Entrepreneurship within Northern Ireland Previous research into the effect of entrepreneurial activity on economic growth by organisations such as the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), have shown a direct correlation. (Hegarty, 2006) According to the GEM survey in 2009, Northern Ireland was ranked 9th out of 12 UK regions for Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA). There has still, however, been a rise in the TEA rate since 2002, despite the impact of the economic recession. (GEM, 2009) Figure 1 below shows the change in Total Entrepreneurial Activity since 2002: Figure 3 Total Entrepreneurial Activity in Northern Ireland and the UK (2002 2009) (GEM APS) This TEA value is calculated using the percentage of early-stage entrepreneurial activity among the adult population, aged 18 64 years. (Pfeifer and Sarlija, 2010) In order to qualify and be included in the TEA value, respondents have to be involved in either: Nascent Ventures The firms generally referred to as start-ups. Any respondent actively involved in creating a new business that they would own or part of and had not paid any salaries or wages to anyone for more than three months. Young Businesses More established, owner-manager businesses but have not been paying salaries for more than 42 months. Lee et al explains that there are two academic approaches to categorise entrepreneurship. The first way is to focus on the entrepreneurs and understand why they chose to start a new business and be an entrepreneur. The second way is to study regional variation in the formation of new businesses. (Lee et al., 2004) For this study, both approaches will be used. A number of factors can be studied in order to determine how entrepreneurship affects economic growth. Storey (1994) focused on factors such as personality, human capital and ethnic origin whereas Evans and Leighton (1990) focused more on factors such as educational attainment and work experience. Previous research has linked a higher educational attainment with new business formation. (Evans and Leighton, 1990) Evans and Leighton also found that men with greater financial resources and greater confidence in their ability are likely to be self-employed. (Evans and Leighton, 1989) Regional factors that affect birth rates of businesses include unemployment, population density, industrial clustering and the availability of financing. (Reynolds et al., 1994) Armington and Acs (2002) also highlighted factors such as income growth and population growth. Factors Affecting Entrepreneurship Gender Female entrepreneurial activity within Northern Ireland between 2002 and 2009 has been significantly below the UK average. In 2009, 2.4% of females were engaged in early stage entrepreneurial activity compared to the UK average of 3.7%. This value is also under a third of male entrepreneurial activity within Northern Ireland, which stands at 8%. Figure 2 shows the female early-stage entrepreneurial activity for Northern Ireland compared with that of the UK average. A report by Crimson Business Limited, highlighted possible reasons why women are less likely to be entrepreneurial than men: Under-capitalisation of ventures Low levels of self-confidence Visibility of appropriate role models The report indicates that these barriers to women becoming entrepreneurs needs to be overcome with greater support from the government. (Crimson Business Limited, 2006) These barriers are not seen globally however, with different parts of the world having different cultures and customs with regards the participation of women in the economic growth of countries. For example, in countries such as Tonga and Guatemala, women are more likely to be involved in early-stage entrepreneurial activity than men. (Bosma and Levie, 2009) Age In 2009, total entrepreneurial activity for those aged 18 24 in Northern Ireland was 2.3% of the adult population. This is compared with a UK average of 3.4%. Northern Ireland remains, as it has done in recent years, with a peak in total entrepreneurial activity between the ages of 25 and 34. A surprising decline in entrepreneurs between the ages of 35 and 44 has been seen in 2009, against the trend of the rest of the UK

Death of a Salesman :: essays research papers

In â€Å"Death of a salesman,â€Å" Willy Loman’s values are very much skewed. He is focused on ideals that are dedicated to success in a world which has no room for non-achievers. Willy‘s life was built of false dreams and hopes. His main values in life are money and being well liked. These beliefs are expressed throughout the entire story. He says â€Å"Be liked and you will never want.† Willy also complains that Biff ‘†¦has yet to make thirty-five dollars a week!’   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The importance of being well-liked, physically attractive, and being a good athlete are the qualities which are often stressed by Willy Loman. He builds his whole life around this idea and teaches it to his children. He is convinced that Happy will become store manager, when Happy is just a loser. Willy constantly tells himself all of the great things that Biff has done, extremely inflating Biff’s image. Willy still refuses to face reality when Biff states that he never worked as a salesman for Oliver. Willy replies, â€Å"But you were practically.† By the time Biff is grown, it is almost too late to realize that good looks and athletic talent does not ensure respect and financial success. Biff knows this and says to his father, â€Å"We’ve been walking in a dream for fifteen years†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.I never got anywhere because you blew me so full of hot air.† Biff realizes that he has been blinded by false values.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Willy’s dream is to become like Dave Singleman. He was so impressed that Singleman was so well-liked, that buyers and salesman from all over came to his funeral. Willy’s need to be admired is so important that he lies about his own reputation and success. To prove to himself that he is well-liked, Willy cheats on his wife.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Moral values are not taught to Loman’s boys. When Biff steals the foot ball, Willy says that the coach would be proud that Biff wanted to practice. Also, when Biff told his father that Bernard gave him answers to his test, Willy had no problem with it.

key terms english :: essays research papers

KEY TERMS Alliteration - The repetition of the same sounds or of the same kinds of sounds at the beginning of words or in stressed syllables, as in â€Å"on scrolls of silver snowy sentences† (Hart Crane). Modern alliteration is predominantly consonantal; certain literary traditions, such as Old English verse, also alliterate using vowel sounds. Anaphora - The deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive verses, clauses, or paragraphs; for example, â€Å"We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills† (Winston S. Churchill). 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Linguistics. The use of a linguistic unit, such as a pronoun, to refer back to another unit, as the use of her to refer to Anne in the sentence Anne asked Edward to pass her the salt. Antithesis - Direct contrast; opposition. -The direct or exact opposite: Hope is the antithesis of despair. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a balanced or parallel phrase or grammatical structure, as in â€Å"Hee for God only, shee for God in him† (John Milton). 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second and contrasting part of such a juxtaposition. -The second stage of the Hegelian dialectic process, representing the opposite of the thesis. Apotheosis - Exaltation to divine rank or stature; deification. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Elevation to a preeminent or transcendent position; glorification: â€Å"Many observers have tried to attribute Warhol's current apotheosis to the subversive power of artistic vision† (Michiko Kakutani). 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An exalted or glorified example: Their leader was the apotheosis of courage. Blank verse - Verse consisting of unrhymed lines, usually of iambic pentameter. Caesura - A pause in a line of verse dictated by sense or natural speech rhythm rather than by metrics. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A pause or interruption, as in conversation: After another weighty caesura the senator resumed speaking. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Latin and Greek prosody, a break in a line caused by the ending of a word within a foot, especially when this coincides with a sense division. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Music. A pause or breathing at a point of rhythmic division in a melody. Elegaic - Of, relating to, or involving elegy or mourning or expressing sorrow for that which is irrecoverably past: an elegiac lament for youthful ideals. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Of or composed in elegiac couplets. Enjambement - The continuation of a syntactic unit from one line or couplet of a poem to the next with no pause.

Beauty is in the Eyes of the Beholder Essay

Throughout the decades of time, society has been continuously determining the perception of what it is to be â€Å"beautiful.† The American standard of beauty is often reflected upon advertisements that convey an unrealistic expectation for most everyday women. Whereas, teenagers have grown to interpret advertisements as a model for how they should appear physically. Marilyn Monroe was perceived as the epitome of beauty in the 1950s. The well-known sex symbol was recognized because of her curvaceous build. But for instance, Twiggy, a popular model in the midst of the 1960s, later set a misconstrued standard to what was beautiful. With the rising of her stardom, the glamorization of being thin was beginning to take a turn on a more positive note. That is until the famous 90s heroin chic model, Kate Moss, hit the scene taking the modeling industry by storm in an unhealthy manner with her campaign â€Å"Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels.† As time continues to inevitab ly move forward in American culture, as will the image and conception of what beauty truly is in the eyes of our society. The value of women has always been subjectified to that of their appearance; therefore, the desired standard to be â€Å"beautiful† continues to evolve in the wrong ways. Today, the media puts pressure on both girls and women to look a specific type of way and throughout the past several years it has begun surface more frequently due to the drastic lengths people are willing to go to achieve their idea of perfection. Molly Edmonds, a woman who wrote â€Å"10 Ways the Definition of Beauty Has Changed† on a popular health website – HowStuffWorks – exclaims â€Å"the problem is, what society considers beautiful has a tendency to change, which means our pursuit of beauty tends to be lifelong and subject to the whims of trendsetters.† In American culture today, society is endlessly pushing the average woman be compelled to the thought of have a slimming but toned stomach, long but muscular legs, basically, a perfectly proportioned body in order to bear a cceptance from those amongst them. If a young female in this day and age is, for example born with brown, curly hair she might feel as if she has to have blonde, straight hair in order to fit in. As if somewhere in the world there is a recipe for the perfect woman that requires specific ingredients and an  exquisite taste. Most females are not satisfied with their physical features because of the image of this â€Å"ideal woman† that has been corrupted in the minds of people through radio, television, magazines, and movies by advertising with these countless models, which are materialized by their unrealistic slender bodies and high cheek bones. Basically, telling us that we are not good enough on our own skin; that we need THEIR tips, THEIR products and THEIR services to transform into THEIR picture perfect, ideal women. To the naked eye, these various advertisements and ways of entertainment seem to be harmless but in the reality of the widespread problem, the media is relentlessly bombarding us with their desires, permanently damaging the self-esteem of both women and even men. Although it isn’t written about or explained through definitions, we’re able to recognize society’s standard of â€Å"beauty† by the images of the men and women that are chosen to be projected. Beauty throughout the mid-century was evoked sensually through a â€Å"natural look.† Therefore, normal women were discovered for that certain type of look; women like Norma Jean, also known as Marilyn Monroe. Traveling back into the 50’s, a time where beautifully built women were praised by all, both men and women, because of their physical appearance. Marilyn Monroe was emulated for her full-figured stature and ravishing natural beauty. Anne Peterson once wrote, † Monroe was a presence impossible to ignore. Her image signified vitality and brazenness, sexuality and innocence. It reset the standard of what it meant to be sexy, and what it meant to be sexy in public. No star has troubled the status quo as significantly since.† After becoming Playboy Magazine’s first cover model and centerfold, Monroe soon achieved in becoming one of the largest the sex symbols of the decade. The actions people displayed began to transcend from an uptight society to a point where people were free to express themselves. This added a boost to prod individuals into becoming more open with their sexuality instead of hiding their true selves to those who surrounded them. In addition to modeling Marilyn’s acting career blossomed. â€Å"People all over America were buying televisions to put in their homes, which caused moving film to play a much larger role in society than in previous decades.† (Boyd) This new up rise in the ways of entertainment developed a type of industry where physical beauty was essential for making  a career. Marilyn Monroe’s signature blue eyes and curly blonde hair contributed to her stand out look compared to the other popular models and actresses of the era. As the years continued to pass, so had a tremendous development and perception of beauty through the eyes of our society. â€Å"Since the 1960s, models such as Twiggy and Kate Moss have replaced more voluptuous figures like Marilyn Monroe as the new ideal of beauty and the desired male look has likewise become more trim and hard-bodied with each passing decade.† (Tolerence) From the original curvaceous figure of Marilyn Monroe, that had rose along with television sales in the 50s, to Twiggy’s emaciated figure that was popularized as the art of runway modeling began to become more common, and which later returned back to a more waifish or heroin chic look, increasing Kate Moss’ popularity in the fashion industry. â€Å"Twiggy’s role in new fashion portrayal was probably the biggest change in ideals in the 20th century.† This â€Å"skinny† look that was advertised more and more, pushing the image that full-figured models were beautiful too created an uprooting dilemma throughout the years. Taking a turn for the worst in this time period, girls and women then began to obsess over both their weight and self-image. It wasn’t until then was when many of the different eating disorders that are known today were discovered. George Santayana once said, â€Å"Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.† The quote is suitable to relevance of the fashion industry; in a way that history does repeat itself. Each year that passes uncovers a new kind of fashion statement. Along with these statements comes a new image; an image on how one needs to look to fit in. What society has had trouble grasping is that physical appear is not what beauty needs to be defined as. Beauty should be defined by the goodness of your heart and the knowledge you enlighten the world with. Works Cited â€Å"THE IDEAL WOMAN THROUGH THE AGES.† DISCOVERY NEWS. N.P. 12 DEC. 2012. WEB. 2 APRIL 2014. http://news.discovery.com/history/art-history/history-beauty-120412.htm PETERSON, ANNE. â€Å"THE UNHERALDED MARILYN MONROE.† THE HAIRPIN. N.P. 26 OCT. 2011. WEB. 2 APRIL 2014. http://thehairpin.com/2011/10/scandals-of-classic-hollywood-the-unheralded-marilyn-monroe Edmond, Molly. â€Å"10 Ways the Definition of Beauty Has Changed.† HowStuffWorks. Web. 7 April 2014. http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/hygiene-tips/10-ways-the-definition-of-beauty-has-changed.htm/printable â€Å"SIZE BIAS AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION.† TOLERANCE. WEB. 7 APRIL 2014. http://www.tolerance.org/article/size-bias-social-construction Wood, Louise. â€Å"Perceptions Of Female Beauty In The 20th Century.† Web. 7 April 2014. http://barneygrant.tripod.com/p-erceptions.htm â€Å"Playboy.† Wikipedia. Web. 7 April 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playboy Etcoff, Nancy. â€Å"Survival of the Prettiest.† Web. April 7 2014. http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/e/etcoff-prettiest.html

Introduction to Organizational Politics Essay

This piece consists heavily of quotations from and adaptations of material from several sources (see references at the end). There still may be some unreferenced quotations because I have lost track of their genesis over many years of moving content through various notes. I don’t claim originality, other than the choice and organizing of material – Rex Mitchell. Pfeffer (1992, p. 30) defined politics as â€Å"the processes, the actions, the behaviors through which potential power is utilized and realized†. Another author (Dubrin, 2001 , p. 92) defined organizational politics as â€Å"informal approaches to gaining power through means other than merit or luck†. It could be argued that politics are used primarily to achieve power, either directly or indirectly, e. g. , by being promoted, receiving a larger budget or other resources, or gaining desirable assignments. Many people regard organizational politics as something negative (e. g. , pursuing selflnterests at the expense of others) and something to be minimized. Consequently, although most people know that organizational politics are common, they avoid saying so when it concerns one=s own ehavior. It is more common to talk about politics when complaining about a loss to a friend than it is in the context of one’s own political maneuvering. When we win on an issue, we call it leadership; when we lose, we call it politics. In many organizations, politics is a taboo subject, which makes it difficult for individuals to deal with this crucially important aspect of organizational reality. I believe a leader must skillfully use organizational politics to acquire and retain power and to accomplish major goals. Therefore, it would be a mistake to pretend that politics does not exist or to antasize that a leader can be effective without appropriate (and ethical, I would add) use of politics. As Pericles wrote over 2500 years ago, â€Å"Just because you do not take an interest in politics doesn’t mean politics won’t take an interest in you. † I regard organizational politics as neither good nor bad, per se, although it is important for us to distinguish between ethical and unethical political behavior.

Coco Chanel Essay

Coco Chanel Coco Chanel was one of the most prominent fashion designers of the 20th century. Her contribution in the development of fashion can hardly be underestimated. In fact, she revolutionized fashion in a way, since she was one of the first fashion designers who made women think of themselves first rather than think how they look for their men, which was a traditional view on female fashion at the epoch. In actuality, the significance and her great contribution in the development of fashion as well as 20th century culture at large was marked by her contemporaries as well as modern specialists. For instance, she was the only person in the field of fashion design to be named on TME Magazine’s 100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century (Charles-Roux, 145). In such a way, she gained a public approval and popularity which made her name one of the most recognizable in the fashion world. At the same time, her life was quite difficult, especially during her early years and war time periods. In fact, she witnessed two world wars but she kept working regardless of all the problems and challenges she faced in her life. In fact, her work was her true passion she remained devoted to from her early life until the end. Gabrielle Bonheur â€Å"Coco† Chanel was born on August 19, 1883. She was a second daughter of travelling salesman Albert Chanel and Jeanne Devolle in a small city of Saumur, France (Orecklin, 49). In fact, her family was poor and she was raised in poverty stricken neighborhood along with her five siblings. Remarkably, when she got her birth certificate her name misspelled â€Å"Chasnel† because nobody knew how to spell Chanel correctly. As a result, the mayor of the city had to improvise and added the letter â€Å"S† in her name, which later became a serious problem for her biographers, who could not trace her origin and define genealogical tree because of such an error in her name (Orecklin, 51). However, the misspelling of her name was definitely not the biggest misfortune that happened to her in her early life. She lived in poverty and was practically of an opportunity to get a good education. Moreover, when she was twelve, her mother died of tuberculosis that provoked a serious psychological trauma for the child. At the same time, her father could not stay with the children all the time. He had to work to earn for living and to maintain the family, in which he was the only breadwinner. This is why Coco Chanel was sent to the orphanage of the Catholic monastery of Aubazine, where she spent seven years and where she received her basic education. In fact, it is in the monastery she learned the trade of seamstress. However, she did not spend all the time in the monastery. During the vacations she went to her relatives in a provincial city, where her female relatives taught her to sew with more flourish than the nuns in the monastery were able to demonstrate. In such a way, her interest, her passion to design had started to develop since her childhood as she learned to sew and gradually she became very skilful in this field. At this point, it should be said that she was apparently a gifted person since she managed to develop her skills and abilities to the extent that she became able not only to create traditional wear, but she proved to be able to experiment and find new, original solutions, which were unusual for her time (Dwight, 119). However, at the early started to demonstrate her talent, which though was immature at the epoch. Nevertheless, her professional knowledge, to a significant extent, defined her further life, as her first job was the work at a local tailor, where she was employed at the age of eighteen as she left the orphanage. In fact, it was her first step in her professional career insignificant it seems to be, but still it was very important in regard to her future professional career since she could have hardly find a different work. Moreover, it was the only work where she could realize her full potential and implement her creative ideas while developing new wear. At the same time, it should be said that she could not afford working at a tailor for a long time because she needed to realize her ideas and she wanted to create clothes of her own. However, she could hardly start her own business, if she had failed to meet Etienne Balsan at the tailor’s shop where Coco Chanel worked. In fact, it was an occasional encounter which though outgrew into a love affair which opened Chanel the way to a new, different and better life. Etienne Balsan was rich and quite influential. It is during her life with Balsan, Coco Chanel started to design hats. At first, it was just a hobby which gradually transformed into a true passion for designing new clothe items, especially hats, where she grew more and more skillful. Her early works were characterized by high originality since they were quite different from traditional hats. At the same time, the high quality of her products attracted a lot of customers, while her acquaintance with Balsan allowed her to engage customers representing the upper-class of the French society (Charles-Roux, 210). Nevertheless, her love affair with Balsan failed to evolve into a true love. At any rate, their relationships did not last for a long period of time and Coco Chanel left Balsan, moved to Paris and took over his apartment in the French capital. In 1913, she opened her first shop, where she sold fashionable raincoats and jackets. Remarkably, the originality and quality of her wear contributed to the huge success of her shop which allowed her to maintain relatively high standards of life and she became very popular in Paris, which, at the epoch, was one of the world’s centers of the fashion industry. However, the development of her business in Paris was overshadowed by the outbreak of World War I, which started in 1914 and affected the life of the entire country dramatically (Charles-Roux, 219). Nevertheless, Coco Chanel had never stopped working and continued designing new products which still remained popular and the demand for her wear was traditionally high. But she had to stop her business in Paris because she was deprived of all her properties. Nevertheless, Coco Chanel was not discouraged and carried on her professional work and designing became an essential part of her life. On the other hand, she could live with her ideas only. She needed money to earn to maintain living. In this regard, the assistance of Balsan’s friend, Arthur â€Å"Boy† Capel proved to be very helpful for Coco Chanel. Their friendship evolved into a love affair which made them very close and Capel helped Coco Chanel to open a new shop in Brittany, France, which, similarly to the shop in Paris, became very popular among local customers (Weber, 35). It is worth mentioning the fact that celebrated French actresses buy wear in Chanels’ shop which was very important for the promotional campaign of her shop. In fact, the interest of celebrities to her shop contributed to the growing popularity of her products and her design in France that contributed to her professional recognition, while the popularity allowed her to expand her business steadily. Due to her popularity, she managed to introduce new women’s sportswear at her new boutique in Deauville. In such a way, she could expand her business, but, what was even more important, Coco Chanel changed the philosophy of women’s wear. To put it more precisely, her new design and new wear made women confident of the fact that they were supposed to dress for themselves but not for their men. In fact, it was a revolutionary philosophy for France as well as the entire world at the epoch of World War I, when the ominance of men was unchallengeable, while the development of feminism was still insignificant (Charles-Roux, 248). Nevertheless, the design and new philosophy of Chanel produced a significant impact on the development of fashion and the 20th century culture at large. Remarkably, as Coco Chanel grew more and more popular she attempted to change some facts from her past. For instance, she pretended to be born in 1893, instead of 1883, while she insisted that she lo st her mother at the age of six, instead of twelve. In such a way, she created a kind of tragic image of an orphan girl, who managed to achieve a tremendous success due her talent and hard work. At the same time, such manipulations with her past evoked numerous controversies which were insurmountable for her biographers. This is why some details of her biography are still quite controversial and unclear. The 1920s were the epoch of the fast progress of Coco Chanel as a designer and her business developed successfully. Her design was really unique and her wear was very popular in France as well as in other countries. In this respect, it is worth mentioning the fact that her acquaintance with Vera Bate Lombardi, a daughter of Adolphus Cambridge, 1st Marquess of Cambridge and Duke of Teck, became of a paramount importance for Chanel’s empire. In fact, Vera Lombardi became Chanel’s muse and public relations liaison to a number of European royal families, including the British royal family. Her acquaintance with representatives of royal families and upper-classes contributed to her empire growth in power. As a result, before World War II, Chanel’s was one of the most influential designers in Europe as well as the world, because Europe, especially Paris, where Coco Chanel resided in the Hotel Ritz Paris, was the heart of the world’s fashion design (Barringer, 28). However, World War II forced Coco Chanel to stop her work and business. Nevertheless, she remained in Paris even during the German occupation. This period in her life was probably the most controversial because, after the war, she was repeatedly accused of collaborationism. For instance, she was suspected of having a love affair with a German officer and Nazi soy Hans Gunther von Dinklage. Moreover, she was even arrested after the war but she escaped the t rial after the interference of the British royal family, but she was forced to move to Switzerland where she lived until 1954. In 1954, she returned to Paris where she renewed her work and her business, but her new collection did not have much success with the Parisians and French because they believe Chanel to be a collaborationist, which produced a negative impact on her public image. Nevertheless, in spite of the failure in France, Chanel had open a new market, the USA, where her wear became extremely popular and the USA became her main market in the post-World War II period. On the other hand, even though the USA was the main market for Chanel’s Empire, Coco Chanel, herself, had never left Paris and stayed in this city until her death on 10 January 1971. She died at the age of 88 in her private suit in the Ritz Hotel Paris and she was buried in Lausanne, Switzerland (Charles-Roux, 341). Thus, taking into account all above mentioned, it is possible to conclude that Coco Chanel was a very influential fashion designer. She had changed the traditional view on women’s wear and she had changed the women’s philosophy in regard to the wear. She was one of the first designers who made women think of themselves above all, instead of thinking of their men when they choose the clothes. At the same time, her personality is still quite controversial because, in spite of a huge popularity before World War II, she failed to regain the popularity in France after the war.

Strategic Intent Essay

This article serves a purpose to illustrate some of the flaws that are currently used by western organizations in regards to strategic planning. In this article we see are shown the detriment of the methods in practice at the time of the article, and examples of alternative strategic approaches in use by Japanese firms which have allowed them to have sustained success. Strategic Intent and Characteristics As indicated in the article, Japanese companies â€Å"began with ambitions that were out of all proportion to their resources and capabilities†, but â€Å"created an obsession with winning at all levels of the organization and then sustained that obsession over the 10- to 20-year quest for global leadership†. Inspired by this obsession, the concept of â€Å"strategic intent† is introduced to the world of strategy. Strategic intent captures the essence of winning, is stable over time, and sets target that deserves personal effort and commitment. It comes with an ambition in the pursuit of global leadership that used to be outside the range of traditional strategic planning. By implementing strategic intent, a company can create long term objectives despite of considerable resources, whereas thinking in a traditional way, decisions should be made on the degree of fit between existing resources and current opportunities. Description The key points to this article refer to the differences in strategic approach that the Japanese firms use, in contrast to the approaches used by western organizations. Japanese firms use four main techniques when constructing their strategy: Building layers of advantage Searching for â€Å"loose bricks† Changing the terms of engagement Competing through collaboration Applications Strategic Intent is a breakthrough concept in the field of Strategic Management. It has strongly influenced how strategy is defined, and is  responsible for main changes in the functioning style of many organizations. Key ideas brought together with â€Å"strategic intent† such as â€Å"core competence† and â€Å"stretch†, have been introduced to every company. With the same amount of resources and capacity, many companies have become much more successful than they were before under the inspiration of this strategy. One example that emerges from the article is when Canon changed the terms of engagement in an effort to compete against Xerox. Xerox had created many advantages where other competing firms (most notably Kodak and IBM) were not able to directly compete against Xerox. Canon changed the terms of engagement by: standardizing their components, distributing through office supply stores instead of their own sales force, sold instead of leased, and appealed to secretaries and administrative positions within companies. All of these factors helped Canon change the terms of engagement, and not directly compete against Xerox who already held a sizable advantage. Questions and concerns In the article Making Strategic Planning Work there is reference that ineffective planning may be a result of failure to develop clear policies, where those policies would guide decision making. However, in Strategic Intent, a global executive describes how they look for competitors who operate on a portfolio system (where businesses may be sold if a certain market share is reached). Therefore, could having a strategic policy hurt decision making? Connection to Prior Thoughts In Making Strategic Planning Work, the author talks about some requisites for strategic planning. Strategic intent share the same way. It requires the management to conduct internal self-appraisal and future environment assessment to ensure the strategy is on the right track. The main reason for failure could be the same – lack of commitment for planning. In Crafting Strategy, it mentions how detecting the subtle discontinuities that may undermine a business in the future is crucial. This opinion is also shared in Strategic Intent, where it references the problem how managers operating on a 3-5 year window can cause damage as they are not looking out for the long term interest for the company. While both articles share the same  thoughts, why aren’t more companies willing to pay for those managers with several years’ experience—instead of hiring outside the company?